Civil Rights Movement and the Blacks’ Experience

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According to the Oxford dictionary (2013), “discrimination” is defined as: “the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.” From 1955 to 1968, discrimination is exactly what the African American communities experienced in the United States of America. Despite the truth that the history of this discrimination can be traced back much longer, the climaxed events of the 1960’s were the ones that determined the final direction in which the African-American communities would travel in the coming generations when it came to their integration, acceptance and prosperity in the White American society. The efforts of African American leaders and activists fighting against racial discrimination are collectively called the African American Civil Rights Movement. The following movement was made up of many social and history-changing events. During the Civil Rights Movement, the African Americans faced physical, emotional and social challenges and persecution, but their collective perseverance and civil disobediences resulted in achieving equal rights for their descendants.

Before one can properly understand and contemplate the obstacles faced by the African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement, it is essential to dwell into the history and events that led there. After the American Civil War, there was the period of Reconstruction. This was a call for communities to come together and re-build the American unity, physically and emotionally. It was the first time (after the actual war participation) that the Blacks were getting accepted as workers and community helpers. Even though there was still a long way to go, as white supremacist groups were strong and passionate, the African Americans were gaining attention in the government policies. Lincoln and the Republican Party had been victorious with passing the 19th Amendment and abolishing slavery; however, the Democratic Party soon took over (Scheb and Stephens, 2007, p. 528). After Democrats had taken control over the South, there was a sudden increase in violence against the African American communities. This was due to the strict segregation laws enacted through the government. This racial segregation by law, officially known as de jure segregation, resulted in the Jim Crow laws. These laws were just the beginning of a long list of troubles for the African Americans. The Jim Crow laws were state and federal laws that forced segregation from the African Americans. For example, segregating public transportation, educational facilities, and even restaurants fell under these laws (Armstrong & Schmidt, 2009).

Another negative side effect of the Democratic government was that the enactment of the Jim Crow laws led to even stricter stances on the possibility of the African Americans’ registration to vote. As segregation was the law, the African American voters faced emotional and physical violence on the route to and at the destination of voting polls. Because of fears attached to the registration process in regards to personal safety, the number of the African American voters reduced. Moreover, this experience was not limited to voting. The African Americans along with other minority groups, such as Latinos, were stripped of economic opportunities that could help them prosper in the society. They were purposely fired or not hired at times which affected their self-esteem and their economic standing (Armstrong & Schmidt, 2009).

One of the earliest battle grounds in the African American Civil Rights Movement was the school. Focusing on educational discrimination faced by the African Americans, the most significant year was 1951 leading up to the main Civil Rights Movement. A Virginia school, Moton High School, faced a great challenge from its Black students who had had enough of cruel segregation. The segregation by itself was not what caused concern. It was the unequal segregation that included along the school’s poor conditions. Overpopulation, uncleanliness and lack of school supplies were all triggers for students who decided to integrate into the white school and further protest the Jim Crow laws. Instead of working and helping students, the school board took the case to court. The famous the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case was made up of five cases with similar issues. The case questioned and challenged the “separate but equal” stance, and the result was in favor of the African American students. Still, the majority of states did not abide by the national law immediately. In fact, in 1954, Greensboro was the first Southern city to integrate its schools and become a leader in the movement (Kalrman, 2007, p. 55-70).

However, the education battle was far from over after the Supreme Court’s ruling. In fact, the majority of white communities refused to allow their children to be integrated with the Blacks. In the years 1954-55, from parents to the students themselves, white communities actively protested this integration through boycotting classes and even violent mishaps. However, the African American families and children persisted and kept on facing the challenges. These actions did not only get exhausted the white supremacists but encouraged many states to follow integration. On the other hand, some extremist states, such as Mississippi, went as far as punishing white students through jail and fines for integrating with the African American students. Alongside other states, even Virginia kept extending the Supreme Court’s ruling into the upcoming one to two years, despite repeated warnings and orders directly from the Supreme Court. Another example is the state of Georgia, which started firing teachers who allowed or even encouraged integration. Even though the times seemed grim, positive changes were slowly taking place. The Supreme Court kept extending the Brown v. Board of Education ruling to other public areas, such as playgrounds and street parks (Hawkins and McDowell, 2012).

Part of the Civil Rights Movement educational battles, Arkansas became a prominent state in the news. Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas, called out the National Guard in order to stop nine African American students from going into Little Rock Central High School. The story became famous when only one of the nine students attended school on the first day. She was harassed and taunted by white protestors. The incident was paid attention to. President Dwight D. Eisenhower himself demanded the governor to overturn his decision. The President also sent protection for the African American students. The southern states felt so strongly about integration that they decided to shut down the schools instead of accepting the court’s decision (Hartford, 2013).

On the other hand, integrating in public stores was much more successful and faster. This is most likely because it was some years after Brown v. Board of Education. The first sit-in protest was held by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP) youth division at one of the Dockum Drug Store chains in Kansas. The sit-ins became highly contagious and resulted in a domino effect throughout other states. The NAACP held certain guidelines for the protestors and participants. For instance, all participants dressed professionally and displayed quiet, yet firm manners. Along with drug stores, students throughout southern state universities and colleges experimented with sit-ins at the lunch counters and restaurants. One of the protestors, Ron Walters, recalls the sit-ins 50 years later:

“Sometimes we were not able to fill all those stools up and someone came in, maybe the person was white … and started toward an empty stool. Then they realized what was going on and they backed away. Some came in looked at what was happening — cursed us out because they understood then that we were depriving them of this service” (Eckels, 2006).

Even though the results were accelerated, the protestors faced physical and mental persecution by being taunted and physically pushed out of the settings (Davis, 1998, p. 311).

Throughout these efforts, a new name in the Civil Rights Movement gained fame and became a household hero and role model for the African Americans. In 1955-56, Rosa Parks gave her Black community the moral strength to stand up once again and reach the desired goal. In fact, because of her efforts, she was nicknamed as the “mother of the African American Civil Rights Movement.” All this occurred because she refused to give her seat on a bus to a white passenger. The actions of this single woman caused a domino effect resulting in the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This boycott affected the bus economy greatly, and after almost 400 days of the boycott, Montgomery buses were persuaded to declare desegregation. It was also the first time the public heard of Martin Luther King, Jr. However, many people do not know that a teenage girl named Claudette Colvin had violated bus segregation rules before Rosa Parks. In fact, she was arrested immediately. When Rosa Parks was arrested, this merely reopened the previous case (Thornton, 2006, p. 1471).

One of the major reasons why the African American Civil Rights Movement was dominantly peaceful on the part of the African Americans was that it was led by various organizations. Local and national groups and organizations, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP), provided teaching tools and resources for the African Americans all over the country. These tools included teaching the African Americans how to respond peacefully, how to cope with the emotional and physical trauma and, most importantly, how to take effective actions either individually or together. One of such organizations was the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). This organization’s motto was: “To help anyone who believes that ‘all people are created equal’ and are willing to work towards the ultimate goal of true equality throughout the world” (CITE). It was CORE that was behind the phenomenal Freedom Rides in 1961. These were trips by the African American Civil Rights activists on interstate buses through the south. In 1960, the Supreme Court ruled against segregation on interstate buses in the case called Boynton v. Virginia. The activists did not know what would happen during these rides, and their intention was to stop segregation in public transportation along with public terminals. However, it was not easy and physically dangerous (Arsenault, 2006).

As the buses traveled further south, the trips became more dangerous for the African Black activists. In fact, the extremist white supremacist group, the Ku Klux Klan, beat up activists and even bombed the buses at certain occasions. However, the Ku Klux Klan did not act alone and had public support. The entire mobs of whites attacked the buses and beat up the African American activists along with whites who helped them. As the journeying went on, the authorities in Mississippi and other states arrested activists and those who helped them. The numbers of jailed activists grew into the hundreds and were constantly persecuted in jail physically. The physical persecution included but was not limited to hard labor, chronic beatings, and lack of food. When the conditions worsened both inside and outside the jail walls, the public and media became attracted to the issue, and finally, the Interstate Commerce Commission passed a new bill that ended segregation at terminals and on buses (Arsenault, 2006).

Looking back, when the Democratic Party succeeded Abraham Lincoln’s Republican Party, voter registration was the main obstacle for the African Americans. In the 1960s, African American activists decided to raise the issue once again. Instead of simply aiming at making voter registration easier for the African Americans, African American activist organizations desired to gain political seats for the Blacks. The SNCC organization began the diligent work of gaining smoother voter registration processes for the African Americans, but they were met with severe resistance because of the Ku Klux Klan, which went as far as murdering Black voters and even white activists who took their side. In order to solve the strong resistance in Mississippi and other neighboring states, the activist organizations made a plan to come together and have a collective agenda. They focused all their attention and efforts on the same united goal: to get Black voters registered and help them to cast their votes in the next election. Street by street, town by town, city by city, their efforts paid off when finally in 1965, after a long fight, the Voting Rights Act was successfully passed (Hartford, 2013).

Moreover, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 officially states that no state can impose “voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice or procedure or deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color” (Yale Law School, 2013). The bill’s main aim was to allow illiterate southern Blacks to be able to vote without strict literacy restrictions, which the southern states had imposed as a means to block them. For example, if a person could not sign his/her name, he/she was blocked from voting. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was not only effective, but it also changed history. Even though some states still tried to get around this novel law, the new act gave the African Americans confidence and encouraged them to fight for the implementation of the latter. This new law finally ended voting discrimination concerning the African American voters. It is worth noting that the law also helped other minorities. It was extremely successful and had a positive unifying effect on the country as a whole. Immediately after the bill’s acceptance, 250,000 African American voters were successfully registered (Yale Law School, 2013).

On the other hand, there were groups and formal organizations that worked just as diligently to keep segregation going strong. The Ku Klux Klan was a violent and deeply feared group. However, these other organizations aimed at representing themselves as educated and civil and, of course, as the best race of all. They still carried the strong belief of the “white man’s burden” and saw themselves as unique the leaders of the society. One of such organizations was known as the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission. It was a local, state level group whose main purpose was to block Civil Rights Movement activism and, in fact, provide a counter plan for it. The members of the group tactfully used positive language, aimed at making segregation look like the best possible choice for the American society. The trickery used by the members involved making criminal and degrading profiles of the African American activists, which included getting background checks, harassing them, and even unemployment (Minchin & Salmond, 2005).

Moreover, one of the platforms where the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission tried to mingle with was the university. In 1965, Clyde Kennard, who was a Black Korean, attempted to get admission into the Mississippi Southern College. The school’s president who worked with the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission tried to stop Kennard’s admission persuasively and tactfully as he could not do it legally anymore. The anti-desegregation group created a negative image of Kennard in the media and had him arrested for three years. All this was done to prevent a single black student from attending the white university. In fact, the organization publically stated, speaking on the African Americans’ behalf, “We insist that educationally and socially, we maintain a segregated society. In all fairness, I admit that we are not encouraging Negro voting. The Negroes prefer that control of the government will remain in the white man's hands” (Minchin & Salmond, 2005).

To handle the desegregation problem at the university level, the African Americans once again took their pleas to the court and found legal success. Their patience and perseverance paid off when James Meredith gained admission to the University of Mississippi through court orders. Still, there was physical protesting from the white state leaders of Mississippi, including Ross Barnett, the governor of the state. President John F. Kennedy was made to send the military forces to protect Black students attempting to attend classes. Even though there were many protests and bloody battles, slowly but surely, southern schools joined integrated. The struggle faced by the African American students was also the reason why students started becoming avid activists in the Movement. In fact, various Civil Rights Movement organizations focused on getting the youth involved and achieving victories through these young minds as they were the most passionate and had the most to offer to help the Movement (Minchin & Salmond, 2005).

Even in the upcoming years, education integration would be a great challenge not only for the Blacks but the Whites, as well. It was a challenge for the African Americans because they were the ones who fought for integration primarily in order to get education of the same quality for their children. As for the Whites, integration was a challenge to their way of life. They were not sure how it would affect their lives. In 1963, the attention diverted to in the city of St. Augustine, Florida. Even though integration was mandated by the law, there were only six African American children attending the white schools, and this process was a living nightmare for them. Their homes were burned down, they were taunted and harassed at school, and some of their parents were fired from their jobs. When the students participated in a sit-in to protest the injustices, they were simply arrested (Duncan, 2004).

The group was made up of sixteen African Americans students, both boys and girls. They sat in at the white lunch counter at the Woolworth store. The oldest four youths were sentenced to a reform school for six months. The case gained attention throughout the country. The atrocities continued in St. Augustine by the Ku Klux Klan representatives as they violently harassed the African Americans and white integrationists over and over again. On one occasion, a fight ensued in which a few Ku Klux Klan members and Blacks were arrested. The hypocrisy and twisted white supremacy extended to such limits that instead of charging the Ku Klux Klan members, the African American man was charged, and the Ku Klux Klan members were released. The Black man, Robert Hallying, was charged with fighting with the Ku Klux Klan (Duncan, 2004).

Since he was stuck in a corrupt system, Robert Hallying reached out to the youngsters – the university students. He beseeched students from Boston, Massachusetts, to be active members of the Civil Rights Movement. When they arrived to St. Augustine, the students came alongside famous and well-known activists’ wives - even the Massachusetts governor’s mother. Because of their company, the students along with St. Augustine gained international attention. Soon, other leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., and Andrew Young joined the St. Augustine forces, further strengthening their mission and morale. The leaders led the activists in protests and marches during the day and night. The main goal started off with integrating schools and universities but eventually extended to include public places, as well (Duncan, 2004).

Another reason why St. Augustine was so famous in this movement is because of the non-conventional activists supporting the integrationists. Martin Luther King, Jr., called his Rabbi friends who did not only come but were arrested with the integrationists. One protest got out of hand in a way that no one could have foreseen. This protest took place at the Monson Motor Lodge where there was a public swimming pool. The protestors, belonging to both races, jumped into the pool in the hopes of integrating it. The hotel manager poured acid directly into the pool and had the protestors arrested. This extreme action was largely condemned and helped gain support for the protestors internationally (Branch, 1998).

Furthermore, the Civil Rights Movement’s major characteristic was that it spread throughout all leading cities in the south, especially forceful where there was the strongest persecution. One of such cities was Birmingham, Alabama, which attracted a national recognition in 1963. Known as the Birmingham Campaign, it was organized by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). It was for the first time when Martin Luther King, Jr., gained the spotlight. The main aim behind the Birmingham Campaign was to attract attention to the persecution faced by the African Americans, specifically in Birmingham and Alabama, since it was an extremist segregated place. In fact, the city’s rules were so extreme that the African Americans could not hold any office or vocational jobs and were merely pushed into manual labor working in mills and fields. This obviously affected the African Americans negatively as they had no chance of increasing their economic state and, therefore, improving the quality of their lives. Statistics showed that Birmingham Blacks had double the rate of unemployment as their white counterparts (Trueman, 2000).

One of the reasons for being against desegregation was that a white man in Birmingham would face the increased competition when it came to jobs (TIME, 1958). When the mere discussion about desegregation would start, so would the violence against its supporters. Bombings, personal attacks and harassments were so common in Birmingham that it became a place of constant unease and threats. When things went way overboard, it was the point that triggered the African American community to stand up and take action, still with hesitancy. It was not effective to take cases to courts as white people and leaders of the city simply closed public places, which required integration from the law instead of taking steps to change their community rules and mindset. The extreme conditions in Birmingham were the reason national activists, including Martin Luther King, Jr., came there to help (Morris, 1993, pp. 621-636).

The most important thing that the African American activists realized was that if they could change Birmingham despite its extremities and high prejudice, they could solve lesser challenges. For them, the city was the toughest, and they wanted to get it out of the way to make the path clear for future victories. However, this meant a fight with the southern white supremacists’ mindsets and not merely a fist fight. To start off, the activists needed a new strategy as there was a new challenge. They knew that previously practiced tactics would not work here. For instance, the campaign in Albany, Georgia, had been a failure because the African Americans wanted to change the entire city at once. Learning from the Albany experience, this time, the strategy was to be focused on smaller sections at a time. The main philosophy was to engage in direct action “to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation” (Morris, 1993, pp. 621-636).

To start off the campaign, Birmingham students began to boycott local businesses. Boycotting was one of the major practices seen throughout the Civil Rights Movement. Looking back at the Albany Campaign, African American activists had placed their focus directly on politicians; that is why they had suffered high loss. In Birmingham, the leaders learned from the students and youth and decided to support them by organizing a mass economic boycott on the city’s businesses. Even though the city leaders attempted to punish the African American protestors by withdrawing their funds, the following acts only made the protestors more passionate and motivated. The passion reached its apogee that the African Americans turned against their own groups when some of them would go shop or support anti-integration businesses. This was done by physically stopping them from entering the stores or even taking away the things they had bought.

Furthermore, the Civil Rights Movement would see more protests in 1965 when the American Football League players boycotted New Orleans businesses. The reason that prompted this action was that the African Americans who came to watch the All-Star Game were not provided services, such as hotels and cab rides. The unique thing was that the players, celebrities in America, took a strong stance and, in turn, boycotted New Orleans altogether when they moved the game to Texas. This decision was also carried out because at this point, racist discrimination had been outlawed through the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Even though Martin Luther King, Jr., was not an unknown name in Birmingham, he also was not very popular. This was because of his unsuccessful attempts at activism in Albany, Georgia. However, to regain people’s confidence, he supported nonviolent confrontations in Birmingham and encouraged the African American community to take up various methods except the violent ones. These methods included sit-ins in the public places and demonstrations. At first, it might seem bizarre, but the purpose behind this intention was to fill the jails to such extents that the white officials would be forced to do something about the demonstrations and protesting. It was a tough action as most business owners simply ignored the demonstrations and did not show reactions to undermine the attention given to the Black activists. Not all African Americans supported these sit-ins and wanted to do everything officially in the courthouses. However, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the SCLC argued that it was worthless as even though the courts would rule in the blacks’ favor, the whites in Birmingham would still not abide all rules (Trueman, 2000).

The angered Birmingham officials decided to use economics to cripple the African Americans’ efforts by raising the bail price for the jailed people. This only motivated the Black community more, and people started volunteering to go to jail. In fact, Martin Luther King, Jr., was also arrested. Thus, his name started gaining national fame. King’s followers and supporters purposely did not free him, so the country’s attention could finally be focused on Birmingham. It was their chance to turn the tide in their favor and weaken the city’s extremist and strict ideology. One of the most effective tools in the Civil Rights Movement was the essay Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote while in jail called Letter from Birmingham Jail. This essay was King’s direct response to those white pastors that blamed him for inciting violence and turmoil. King was in jail for a week, and his stay there proved highly successful for the Civil Rights Movement in Birmingham as the national audience finally paid their attention to his case (Trueman, 2000).

It is worth noting that the SCLC turned their focus on a group, the Children of the Black Community, they had neglected before.. As time was running out, the African Americans needed a few strong pushes to regain media attention, which had faded away after King’s release from jail. Something new had to be done. Even children from the elementary school were recruited. The stakes were high as the children faced the possibility of being jailed. However, the children and activists were willing to take the risk and raise the bar higher. The plan was to prepare the children as much as possible for anything that could happen. The preparation involved workshops and classes in which they were taught how to face dogs and how to handle jail walls. Interestingly, girls were the leaders of this campaign and took the first steps in complying with the training. The plan became so successful that it earned its own name - the Children’s Crusade (Morris, 1993).

The Children’s Crusade took place on May 2, 1963, and was a collective march of hundreds of students in Birmingham. It was carefully planned and executed. The children were happy and even while being arrested displayed positive energy and a sense of accomplishment. The entire country was confused and bewildered at this new scene. In fact, most people were against the use of children, including the African American activists. Following in the footsteps of the children on the 1st of March, hundreds of other students and youngsters decided to continue it a few days later. Though, this time, the resources were running out and jails were overflowing, so the white officials decided to use fire hosing and dogs. It was perhaps the strongest turning point in the history of the Civil Rights Movement, specifically for the Birmingham Campaign. Even though the children faced such atrocities, the parents and the community did not condemn their children’s actions and, in fact, applauded their bravery and strength. This increased the Black community’s morale and made them realize that there was no turning back now (Morris, 1993).

Subsequently, the Birmingham jails were overflowing, and the tactics for dealing with protestors became more and more violent. Birmingham managed to gain the intended national media attention so much that religious and activist leaders from all over the country were visiting the city in hopes of ending the African American persecution. The news even crossed international borders. For instance, Russia took action with the intent of dehumanizing and criticizing the American government by broadcasting the Birmingham events on television. It was also a means to pressurize the American government to take action. At this point, the main conflict was between the city’s business owners and politicians because even though the business owners agreed to submit all the African Americans’ demands, the politicians remained a stubborn party. There was such negative sentiment and stubbornness from this side that they kept using violence through bombs and threats. The terror finally ended when President Kennedy sent troops to stabilize Birmingham, and the Jim Crow laws were finally abolished in the summer of 1963 (Trueman, 2000).

It is evident that change did not take place overnight. This means that even though physical peace had been restored, the acceptance of integration was slower. After the Birmingham Campaign, Americans realized that the South, in fact, was the center of the Civil Rights Movement as it possessed the strong hatred and resistance towards segregation and needed the most care and attention. Inspired by the recent events, the government passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which officially ended and made illegal major discrimination forms against “racial, ethnic, national and religious minorities,” including women. Another slow, yet effective change was the integration of Birmingham schools. The new school year of 1963 welcomed integration for the first time. The cases of violence were still frequent, and many activist leaders were targeted and threatened. This was because the South was influenced by Birmingham. Even though African American spirits were soaring, so was the defiance and resistance by the extremist white groups (Morris, 1993).

In the same summer of 1963, the famous March on Washington aimed at calling for equal employment for Blacks and overall freedom. The unique characteristic about this protest was that it was organized and made up of all races and civil rights groups in the country. The turn-out was phenomenal, consisting of 300,000 demonstrators, along with the organized successful planning. This planning consisted of six major goals: to pass meaningful civil rights laws, to create a federal works program, to provide completely fair employment and housing, and to have a strong integrated education and the right to vote. The March moved to Lincoln Memorial where Martin Luther King, Jr., uttered the famous speech I Have a Dream. The speech gained substantial fame. Firstly, it was eloquent and passionate, and secondly, it was covered with news cameras and news papers, making it heard all over the globe. Even though it was a landmark in the Civil Rights Movement, freedom was far in sight. The speech and his participation in Birmingham earned King the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 (Thomas, 2004).

A year later, in Mississippi, three Civil Rights Activists went missing. This was in the middle of violent acts, such as shootings, bombings and beatings organized by the Ku Klux Klan in attempts of keeping Mississippi segregated. They were a White, a Jewish, and a Black. Their bodies were discovered having been killed by the Ku Klux Klan. It is worth noting that the public had changed since the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. The Whites were targeted against for their support and protesting. In fact, the public was outraged, and this reaction helped push the Civil Rights Act into law. These integrated activist groups were working to set up the Freedom Schools. They were successful in setting up 30 of them along with 28 community centers in the Mississippi Delta. The Freedom Schools were only the beginning, and the time soon came to turn the African American attention in gaining strength in the American politics (McAdam, 1988).

The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was launched in 1964 against the official Democratic Party headed by the Whites. Naturally, the MFDP was met with resistance in the mainstream Democratic arena. To prevent inner tensions and to avoid giving the opposition a weak spot, the MFDP was given two non-voting seats. The following action did not satisfy the MFDP representatives who merely called it a compromise by the President. Despite the compromise, members of the White Democratic Party left the National Convention and later on did not even give the MFDP members seats to sit on them. This left the MFDP members with few alternatives, so they stood and sang freedom songs during the convention. After this rejection, the MFDP continued to work separately as an organization (Carson, 1981).

Another southern city, Selma, Alabama, came under the spotlight when voter registration programs were started for the African Americans. The main reason why it became famous was that Martin Luther King, Jr., graced the city with his presence leading marches and peaceful protests. This time was similar to Birmingham as King was arrested, and the police and resistance were quite violent, resulting in several killings. These violent protests included whips, tear gas, and beatings. The difference was that the media was much stronger and provided a constant broadcasting of the protests. Also, by that time, the number of white sympathizers had increased. Furthermore, courts legally supported the protestors as they realized that by not doing so, it would worsen conditions because the protestors would not back down, either they had court support or not. The courts granted them orders permitting to carry out marches without being bothered (Davis, 1998, p. 314). However, enacting the court’s orders turned out to be more difficult than expected; white extremists kept on killing supporters. President Johnson addressed the calamities in Selma by saying:

“But even if we pass this bill, the battle will not be over. What happened in Selma is part of a far larger movement which reaches into every section and state of America. It is the effort of American Negroes to secure for themselves the full blessings of American life. Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really, it is all of us who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome” (Davis, 1998).

Travelling to another city - this time it was Memphis, Tennessee - to spread their efforts, Martin Luther King, Jr., and his supporters faced a grave tragedy: King’s death. King went to Tennessee with the plan of carrying out the Poor People’s March in 1968. This march would represent low end job workers and bring an increase in their benefits and improve their work conditions. There, he delivered the famous speech known as I’ve Been to the Mountaintop. The next day, Martin Luther King, Jr., was murdered. He was killed in a motel by James Earl Ray. However, the King’s family believes the action to have been a government conspiracy to cripple the Civil Rights Movement. In fact, a trial was held in 1999 that confirmed their suspicions, but it is not 100% believed to be true.

King had four children and a widow named Coretta Scott King. Despite her great loss, Coretta King led the marchers and activists in Memphis and continued to become a civil rights leader. She condemned the violent reactions carried out by the African Americans throughout the country in the form of violent riots as this was not only negatively portraying the Black image but also hurting Black businesses and dishonoring King’s mission (Davis, 1998).

Throughout the Civil Rights Movement, the main focus was on the South because of the sharp contrast between southern and northern states when it came to racist ideas and mindsets. At the time in which the South was facing issues, such as integration at water fountains or integrated schools, the northern states were progressing with focuses on life that had nothing to do with skin color. Ann Burns, a student who moved from the north to Georgia to attend college recalled, “Down South, it was definitely a whole other world.” One of the main differences between the north and the south during the Civil Rights Movement was the nature of protesting. The southern protests often started out peacefully were almost always confronted with the harsh violent consequences. Because of this, they were largely publicized. On the other hand, the northern protests rarely attracted attention as they were passive and, most importantly, did not need to be aggressive (Wrinn, 1970, pp. 1-20).

During the Civil Rights Movement, without a doubt, the African Americans faced persecution at many levels, including mental and physical, and in all categories, such as public transportation and educational facilities. After King’s death, the Civil Right Movement’s efforts were feared to be lost; however, because of the foundation King left behind, the Civil Rights Movement kept on going strong, but a different approach was chosen. Groups, such as the Black Panthers, gained prominence and resorted to violent and aggressive protesting at times, steering away from King’s message. There were many positive features of this group like the fact that the Blacks learned more about their heritage and history, making the fight against segregation worth it. In fact, the Black Panthers led a 30 year fight and protesting that provided the African Americans democratic rights and organized the black strength for the future times. In fact, the effects of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s acted as a domino effect, leading to one victory after another. The Black liberation further helped other minorities stand up, including women. Most of all, the standards of living for an African American improved, especially in the south. The Civil Rights Movement changed the face of history for generations to come. The sad truth is that a lot of the new generation is not prepared and taught this history, which is, in turn, leading them to take their privileges and freedoms for granted. Having an African American for a president is truly a phenomenon; yet, there are still certain racist attitudes that must be changed (De Freitas, 2013).

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Carson, Clayborne. (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Harvard

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